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Herbal Medicines in the Modern World: Ethnobotanical Affects of Increased Use of Herbal Medicines

Herbal Medicines in the Modern World: 
Ethnobotanical Affects of Increased Use of Herbal Medicines


Introduction

As interest in natural plant-based chemicals increases, researchers invade the habitats of indigenous people, risking their livelihood, plant life, and alter the way of life of the region's tribes.

Increased use of herbal (plant-based) medicines has potential for improving public health and lowering health care costs. Recent interest in natural remedies has grown dramatically in countries where Western medicines have long been accepted. While many believe that herbal medicine will be replaced with the production of new drugs by the constantly advancing pharmaceutical industry, a continuous influx of herbal-based products indicate there will always be a place for herbal medicines in the modern world. Exploring the life and medicinal practices of the indigenous Kung and Maasai tribes in East Africa leads to the conclusion that such an influx does not come without changing the life of indigenous people and risks to continued plant life.

Not widely know to laymen, plant-based medicines have been around for tens of thousands of years and account for over $60 billion in sales worldwide. In fact, many major pharmaceutical corporations use various types of plant-based materials in traditional medicine [e.g. Paclitaxel (Taxol) is derivative of the Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia used in chemotherapy]. Herbal remedies, homoeopathic remedies, aromatherapy oils, vitamins and nutritional supplements have become so mainstream that in many countries they are sold through supermarket chains. However, the regulatory status of these products occupies a dubious position between foods and medicines. Because few plant-based remedies are licensed as medicines, manufacturers are prohibited from providing information about potential health benefits, appropriate dosages or possible side effects. This position is unsustainable, given that these products are clearly bought by people who expect that they will be of benefit to their health.

Although it was once a valued guide to herbal compounds, the U.S. Pharmacopoeia has been practically replaced by modern physicians' reliance on the Physician's Desk Reference, an extensive listing of chemically manufactured drugs.

The regulatory exclusion of natural remedies has hindered natural products research in U.S. universities and hospitals. There is no dedicated level of support by the Federal Government for herbal medicine research. The regulatory status of herbal medicines and herbal practitioners is particularly problematic. In the majority of EU member states, including France, Spain and Portugal, the prescribing of medicines is unlawful other than by a registered medical practitioner. However, in the UK, anyone may call themselves an herbalist. The status of herbal remedies in the UK relies on a historic exception to the 1968 Medicines Act, which has been repeatedly challenged. Under the current law, there are still potential risks to patients.

Africa is widely recognized for its use of plant-based medicines, particularly in light of the long and on-going AIDS outbreak. In a 2004 article in IDRC Reports magazine, reporter Bob Stanley wrote: "Nowhere in the world has AIDS had a more devastating effect than in Africa…The costly treatments developed by the pharmaceutical industry in the North are too expensive for most Africans, and are not widely available. Thus, most people continue to turn to traditional healers for help in combating the disease. Despite the skepticism of many, there are signs that some of the plant-based remedies offered by the healers may be not just affordable, but also effective". The many varieties and uses of medicinal and aromatic plants with medicinal properties ensure the primary healthcare and livelihoods of the poor in sub-Saharan Africa. Of approximately 6400 plant species used in tropical Africa, more than 4000 are used as medicinal plants. Up to 80 percent of the African population relies on these traditional medicines.

In her 2000 book, The Healing Power of Rainforest Herbs, Leslie Taylor expands upon the similarities and differences of drugs and traditional plants unveiling the truth that of "at least 120 distinct chemical substances derived from plants that are considered as important drugs currently in use in one or more countries in the world, several of the drugs sold today are simple synthetic modifications or copies of the naturally obtained substances". An example of Taylor's statement is evident in the long-time production and use of Ipecac, a drug used to induce vomiting. According to Taylor, a plant chemical (emetine) was discovered in the tropical plant Cephaelis ipecacuanha of which the drug Ipecac was developed.

Ipecac (also called Syrup of Ipecac or Ipecac Syrup) is still found in pharmacies in many third world countries but has been mostly replaced by other drugs in the United States. Based on Taylor's and other studies conducted, there is no vast difference between plant-based and pharmaceutical medicines. In fact, studies indicate that most drugs have some derivative of plant chemicals in them. One difference is that drugs usually consist of a single chemical, whereas medicinal plants can contain 400 or more chemicals.

While several drugs have originated from biologically active plant chemicals, and many plants' medicinal uses can be attributed to various active chemicals found in them, Taylor explains, "There is a distinct difference between using a medicinal plant and a chemical drug. The difference is one that scares most conventionally trained doctors with no training in plants". Risks become evident when looking closer at compounds of drugs and traditional medicines, whereby drugs usually consist of a single chemical and medicinal plants can contain 400 or more chemicals.

According to Taylor, "It's relatively easy to figure out the activity and side effects of a single chemical, but there is just no way scientists can map all the complex interactions and synergies that might be taking place between all the various chemicals found in a plant, or a traditionally prepared crude plant extract, containing all these chemicals".

How will increased use of herbal medicines affect indigenous people?

According to the newly formed Network on Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine (Eastern Africa), the loss of genetic resources and their habitat is escalating. The loss of related indigenous knowledge is even greater. Plants are particularly important as time-honored medicines in many African tribes. In fact, most African tribes have sophisticated plant knowledge, but as Western influences increase the decline of this tradition also decreases. Unlike studies and production of reports and various publications in the U.S. and other areas, most knowledge of plant-based medicines is still transferred entirely orally in many African communities.

In 1925, the "Witchcraft Act" outlawed traditional medicine in Kenya. However, the practice continued in secret, until parts of the law were revoked with independence in 1963. Western approaches to healthcare, supplied by the government, have expanded in the last decades. However, these approaches are not readily available and many regions remain completely underserved. Consequently, most communities still use herbal remedies as a readily and cheaply available alternative. While these remedies prove effective in most cases, there are some more serious conditions that require a more in-depth level of treatment.

The Kung San (recognized as Bushman and one of the oldest cultures on Earth) are an African tribe located in Southern Africa, found in the region of the Kalahari Desert, primarily in Angola, Namibia, and Botswana. Many believe the Kung ancestors date back as far as the Stone Age. The Kung is a nomadic tribe relying on hunting and gathering as their primary means of subsistence. As an unrestricted society with an emphasis on gift giving and reciprocity, the Kung has a strong division of labor with the men hunting and the women foraging and gathering. They are a community oriented people, generally living in camps with 10 to 30 individuals.

The Kung tribe is constantly undergoing change as the Western influence continues in its homeland due to increasing interaction with other non-San peoples and many Kung are now involved in farm labor, participating in government settlement schemes, relying on government handouts, and are becoming sedentary. Of all changes, one of the most profound is the Western world's entry into the Kung land, gathering plants and samples for its P57 product (derivative of the Hoodia cactus).

Concerning the P57 production, Phytopharm and the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) face demands for compensation as the Kung tribe claims their ancient knowledge has been "stolen". The Kung people have traditionally eaten the Hoodia cactus to avoid feelings of hunger and thirst while hunting. Phytopharm alleges it obtained rights to commercialize P57, which contains the appetite-suppressing active compound of the Hoodia cactus. However, the Kung people say that they were never consulted on the matter, and have accused Phytopharm and Pfizer for preying upon their ancient medicinal knowledge of the plant. Phytopharm claims that it never consulted the Kung as it believed the tribe was extinct.

The Maasai (indicates a speaker of the Maa language) are originally nomadic pastoralists belonging to the Chari-Nile branch of the Nilo-Saharan language family, divided into 11 sections, each occupying specific areas. At the end of the 19th century their original grazing territory encompassed almost 80 percent of Kenya and Northern Tanzania. During colonial rule, much of this land was lost to agriculture. Some sections of the Maasai were even moved completely from their homelands.

In the recent past decades, the life and environment of the Maasai has undergone substantial changes (sedentary lifestyles, former communally owned land now subdivided into group ranches or family units) due growing populations and an incessantly stronger outside influence. However, Maasai life remains exceptionally interwoven with the natural surroundings. As tourism has become a major economic force in Kenya in the last decades contributing to the income for the country, Maasai has seen a vast increase in visitors to its region. However, the distribution of this wealth to the local communities is inadequate.

Traditional use and knowledge of plants remains an essential part of the Kung and Maasai families. However, the Sekenani valley Maasai witness a decrease of plants used in traditional tools and in veterinary medicine as a result of the proximity to main roads, the Maasai Mara National Park, and the decline of plant use because of exposure to Western influence. According to a May 2006 study published in the Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, the changes in lifestyle and associated decline of the use of plants could lead to a continued decline within the region’s tribe. The same study indicates that "in comparison to older studies, part of the Maasai plant knowledge has already disappeared". From 2000 to the present, studies illustrate there are about 500 plant species used by the Maasai. However, since this knowledge is still mostly taught orally, without written record, the loss of knowledge is accelerating.

Given the great level of plant uses by various tribes of Africa (specifically East Africa), any change in circumstance, plant availability, environmental concerns, and water supplies affects the overall livelihood of the country's people. The Maasai tribe has multiple uses for its plant-life. Of about thirty-nine (25 percent) of the plant species encountered in Sekenani had some medicinal use. Most common uses include dental hygiene, treatment of malaria, general strength and wound care, and purgatives and emetics (used to "cleanse" the body and digestive system from polluting substances).

In fact, concerning dental hygiene, about one-third of the plant species used medicinally were employed solely as toothbrushes.

Maasai also used plants to treat malaria of which the cures mostly involve the ingestion of purgative plant extracts, obtained by boiling plant material. Apart from dental hygiene and malaria treatment, only a few plant species were employed for treatment of other health conditions. These include "strengthening of children," wounds, good smell (comparable to modern/Western aromatherapy), preparation of strengthening "soup" for adults, stomach problems, preparation of traditional tea and beer, skin diseases, the common cold, chest problems/pneumonia, joint and muscle pain, parasites, circulation, and low spirit (Westerners term is "depression"). Although not available or used in all areas, there continues some use of plants for the cure of venereal diseases such as Gonorrhea and Syphilis.

Plant-life is used as food for domestic animals and is of chief importance in a livestock keeping society. Both the Sekenani and Loita Maasai have access to governmental veterinary care, thereby significantly reducing the need of plant-based medicines for livestock. However, many of the plants found in the African regions are used as a staple for wildlife. In terms of human consumption, the term "food" is generally used to refer to ripe fruits and berries eaten by women and children. Another staple for the Massai is honey which has an important role in Maasai society. Plant species (called "bee pastures") attractive to bees were thus clearly singled out in Sekenani.

The ceremonial plant use is of principal importance in daily Maasai life. Many species have a specific ceremonial significance, generally associated with blessings, age-rites and witchcraft (e.g. olive (Olea europaea) is thought to bring good luck and ferns (Doryopteris concolor, Athyrium sp., and others) are used to bless women). Other plants are used to bless cows and in circumcision ceremonies.

Plants are also of vital importance in traditional home construction (e.g. used to tie the sticks together to frame traditional huts), but of traditional importance is the use of hardwoods are to produce weapons. While the Sekenani Maasai live a more sedentary life, carrying spears, swords, clubs, and sticks is still culturally important. Clubs are virtually carried by every male, from small herding boys to elders. Weapons also still serve an important role in protection from wild animals.

Firewood is one of the most important commodities in the region, and the Maasai go to great efforts to collect it. The main species used were either hardwoods, or woods selected for their pleasant smell (aromatherapy). The use of plants to make tools varies among the different tribes and Western introduction of tools has taken the place of the traditional tool.

How will increased use of herbal medicines affect plant life?

Traditional plant use is of tremendous importance in many societies, including most rural African communities, as is referenced throughout this paper. This knowledge is however, rapidly dwindling due to changes towards a more Western lifestyle, and the influence of modern tourism. In case of the Sekenani Maasai, the recent change from a nomadic to a more sedentary lifestyle has not, thus far lead to a dramatic loss of traditional plant knowledge, when compared to other Maasai communities. However, in Sekenani, plants are used much less frequently for manufacturing tools, and for veterinary purposes, than in more remote areas. While the knowledge is still present, overgrazing and over-exploitation of plant resources have already led to a decline of the plant material available.

In the Northeastern corner of the wider Maasai Mara region, just outside the popular Mara Game Reserve, twenty-four mostly sedentary Maasai families occupy Sekenani, a region that receives about 600 mm annual rainfall with peaks in April and December. In areas that receive low levels of annual rainfall, the entry of outsiders and their subsequent use of natural water supplies risks the livelihood of the regions plant life and, eventually, human life.

East Africa is prone to extreme droughts, as is historically proven. The East African drought, ongoing through 2006, is believed to be caused in part to lack of "good governance" and "tensions and conflicts in water scarce regions". According to recent reports on the regions problems with water access, the drought also has "strong links with on-going environmental damage to forests, grasslands, wetlands and other critical ecosystems as well as global climate change". As Taylor explains throughout her book, "all living things have inbred survival instincts". This is true of plants, but when the world tampers with natures process the result is a changed environment and hindrance of those natural "survival instincts".


Recommendations

For tens of thousands of years, indigenous people have relied on herbal medicines to keep healthy and productive in life. As the Western world came into the lives of peoples such as the Kung and Maasai tribes, the life they were accustomed to living changed. Instead of being a people who worked hard and gathered from nature for their daily needs, they had to add defending their rights, land and resources to their routines.

Many Western companies have found East African plants to be consistent of various chemicals that prevent, treat and even cure many diseases and illnesses. However, the entry of these companies has upset the balance of the natural ecosystem thereby making life hard for the East African people and wildlife. In fact, a recent lawsuit commenced whereby the Kung tribe insists on compensation for Phytopharm's invasion into their ancestral and traditional information concerning plant-based medicines.

Combined with the disturbances by Westerners is the areas natural lack of rainfall. The lack of water supplies added to the entry of outsides and their use of the regions waterways leads researchers to fear the livelihood of Africa’s natural resources. Measures are underway to help with urgent needs, but reports indicate that measures must be taken now in order to save lives. Additionally, both the African government and those entering the region for study et al must consider the future. Efforts must be sustained (and increased) to maintain and conserve forests, wetlands, and lakes, while working toward restoration and expansion.


Summary Conclusion

Increased use of herbal (plant-based) medicines has potential for improving public health and lowering health care costs. Recent interest in natural remedies has grown dramatically in countries where Western medicines have long been accepted. While many believe that herbal medicine will be replaced with the production of new drugs by the constantly advancing pharmaceutical industry, a continuous influx of herbal-based products indicate there will always be a place for herbal medicines in the modern world. Exploring the life and medicinal practices of the indigenous Kung and Maasai tribes in East Africa leads to the conclusion that such an influx does not come without changing the life of indigenous people and risks to continued plant life.







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Posted by: Sancha Haysbert

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